The responsibilities of the citizen begin with respect for
legitimate government. In some of the passages on this topic,
there is an implicit social contract: the people surrender part
of their autonomy to the government, which in turn establishes
law and order among an unruly and violent population. Other passages
distinguish the claims of religion from the claims of government; each
is sovereign in its own sphere, and hence we may "render
unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are
God's." Thus religions teach that the good citizen should
respect and cooperate with government, bearing with its policies
with which he disagrees, and even enduring occasions when its weight
is oppressive. Yet as we have already noted, there are limits to
obedience to a government when it goes against the will of
Heaven.
Lack of respect to the constituted authority is the source of
most conflicts in the world.
1. African
Traditional Religions. Yoruba Proverb (Nigeria)
Rabbi Hanina the deputy of the priests, said, "Pray for
the peace of the government; for, except for the fear of that, we
should have swallowed each other alive."
2. Judaism.
Mishnah, Abot 3.2
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Abot 3.2: This is not a mild platitude suitable for ordinary
citizens, but a deliberate choice in the midst of a controversy
over how to regard the Roman Empire, which severely oppressed the
Jews under its control. Jews who chafed under Roman rule were
calling for rebellion, which when it came was disastrous; the
Jewish War (68-70 <c.e.) ended with the destruction of the Temple,
and later the Bar Kochba rebellion (132-34 <c.e.) would be
brutally crushed. But the rabbis whose words were compiled in the
Mishnah called for resignation to Roman rule.
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Rabbi Simeon ben Lachish said, "'And behold, it was very
good' [Genesis 1.4]: this is the kingdom of Heaven; this is also
the kingdom of earth. Is then the earthly kingdom good? Yes, for
it exacts justice of mankind. As it is said: 'I made the earth
and created Rome [reading Edom in place of Adam] upon it.' [Isaiah
45.12]."
3. Judaism.
Midrash, Genesis Rabbah 9
Ibn Umar reported the Prophet as saying, "The sultan is
God's shade on earth to which each one of His servants who is wronged
repairs. When he is just he will have a reward, and it is the
duty of the common people to be grateful; but when he acts
tyrannically the burden rests on him, and it is the duty of the common
people to show endurance."
4. Islam. Hadith
of Baihaqi
Hearing and obeying [those in government] are the duty of a
Muslim both regarding what he likes and what he dislikes, as long
as he is not commanded to perform an act of disobedience to God,
in which case he must neither hear nor obey.
5. Islam. Hadith
of Bukhari and Muslim
Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For
there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been
instituted by God. Therefore he who resists the authorities
resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur
judgment. For rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to
bad. Would you have no fear of him who is in authority? Then do
what is good, and you will receive his approval, for he is God's
servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he
does not bear the sword in vain; he is the servant of God to
execute his wrath on the wrongdoer. Therefore one must be
subject, not only to avoid God's wrath but also for the sake of
conscience. For the same reason you also pay taxes, for the
authorities are ministers of God, attending to this very thing.
Pay all of them their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, revenue
to whom revenue is due, respect to whom respect is due, honor to
whom honor is due.
6. Christianity.
Romans 13.1-7
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Genesis Rabbah 9: The pun on Adam, 'man' in the verse from
Isaiah, is possible because both words are formed from the same
Hebrew letters: aleph, dalet, mem. This is in accordance with the interpretive principle
that close study of the Hebrew letters can reveal hidden meanings
of scripture. The sentiment is the same as in the previous
passage. Hadith of Baihaqi: Cf. Mencius I.B.4, p. 902. Hadith of
Bukhari and Muslim: Cf. Hadith of Muslim, p. 899.
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Then the people gathered together and lamented, saying,
"Evil ways are rife among the people--theft, censure, false
speech, and punishment have appeared among us. Let us choose one
man from among us, to dispense wrath, censure, and banishment
when they are right and proper, and give him a share of our rice
in return." So they chose the most handsome, attractive, and
capable among them and invited him to dispense anger, censure,
and banishment. He consented and did so, and they gave him a share
of their rice. Mahasammata meanse elected (sammata) by the whole
people (mahajana), and hence Mahasammata was the first name to be
given to a ruler. He was lord of the fields (khettanam) and hence Khattiya
was his second name. He pleases (ranjeti) others by his
righteousness, and hence his third name, Raja. This was the
origin of the nobility, according to the tale of long ago.
7. Buddhism.
Digha Nikaya iii.92-93, Agganna Suttanta
And they sent some of the Pharisees and some of the
Herodians, to entrap Jesus in his talk. And they came and said to
him, "Teacher, we know that you are true, and care for no
man; for you do not regard the position of men, but truly teach
the way of God. Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not? Should we
pay them, or should we not?" But knowing their hypocrisy, he said
to them, "Why put me to the test? Bring me a coin, and let
me look at it." And they brought one. And he said to them, "Whose
likeness and inscription is this?" They said to him,
"Caesar's." Jesus said to them, "Render unto
Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that
are God's."
8. Christianity.
Mark 12.13-17
The king Wu Ting (c. 1323 <b.c.) appointed Yueh prime
minister. He gave Yueh his instructions, "Morning and
evening, send in your reprimands, and so help me to patch up my
personal virtue. Imagine that I am a steel weapon: I will use you
for a whetstone. Imagine I have to cross a big river: I will use you
for a boat and oars. Imagine I am a year of record drought: I
will use you as a copious rain... "You, yes you, teach me
what should be my aims. You be the malt that works up the brew. Imagine
we are making a good soup, you be the salt and prunes....
"If a talented man is unjust, the ruler should give him no share
in the royal responsibility. If the ruler is unjust, the talented
man should not eat his food."
9. Confucianism.
Book of History 4.8.1-3
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Digha Nikaya ii.92-93: This is a Buddhist version of the social
contract. These etymologies of khattiya (Skt. ksatriya) and raja help
signify the meaning of the office, even if they are not
historically correct. Book of History 4.8.1-3: In the Confucian relation
between prince and minister, the able minister serves his lord
with good, honest advice and covers for his shortcomings. The
prince, in turn, should be attentive and accepting of his
minister's wise counsel. Cf. Doctrine of the Mean 20.8, p. 216;
Book of Ritual 7.2.19, p. 216; Chuang Tzu 4, p. 616; Analects
14.8, p. 877.
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